音像文言教学法/语文教师小丛书张必锟

文言教学
谈谈文言文教学·························································································· 3
文言文教学法····························································································· 44
谈谈文言文练习的设计（提纲）······················································· 68
多读点文言文为好··················································································· 76
“掘井九仞”说诵读················································································ 83
从《卖柑者言》的教学设想谈初中文言文教学问题············· 86
《教战守策》教学设想········································································· 101
《五柳先生传》教学实录···································································· 109
　附1：一堂真正的文言文自读课（礼出）······························ 114
　附2：张必锟答礼出信···································································· 117
《师说》诵读教学设想········································································· 121
　附：《师说》导读·············································································· 131
《出师表》背诵指导要点···································································· 142
《送董邵南游河北序》背诵指导要点··········································· 146
《岳阳楼记》背诵指导要点······························································· 149
实词译解
怎样辨析词的本义················································································· 155
利用语言环境辨析词义
　—学习文言实词的一个基本方法········································· 158
“荆轲废”怎么解？
　—浅谈词义引申············································································ 162
“子曰”的故事························································································ 165
“五六”不是“三十”
　—文言文中约数的表示法························································ 167
译文必须“可解”··················································································· 170
直译和意译不可偏废············································································ 174
虚词随笔
虚词为什么又叫“语”？····························································· 181
虚词不虚····································································································· 183
学文言虚词，要懂得“审辞气”····················································· 186
再谈“审辞气”························································································ 189
三谈“审辞气”························································································ 194
一个有趣的比较
　—介绍一种学习虚词的方法··················································· 198
学文言虚词也要“听”········································································· 200
文言虚词的模糊分类法······································································· 203
“之”的用法漫谈··················································································· 207
“之”于史文神理何干？
　—说“汉军之楚歌”···································································· 211
略说“之”的叠用················································································· 214
“矣”有“言外之意”吗？······························································· 217
“矣”字值得品味··················································································· 220
《马说》中的五个“也”字······························································· 2
《醉翁亭记》的二十一个“也”字················································ 226
这个“也”字增不得············································································ 229
追加两个“而”字················································································· 2
“若夫”解·································································································· 5
从“夫天地者”说起············································································
“多乎哉？”
　—谈文言文中复杂语气的表示·············································· 240
“穿井”能“得人”吗？
　—浅谈虚词的省略······································································· 242
虚词疑难辨析（一）
　—兼答覃继仁同学······································································· 245
虚词疑难辨析（二）·············································································· 248
断句指津
不要把句子读破······················································································ 253
夔只有一只脚吗······················································································ 256
人名不能读破··························································································· 258
句读和朗读································································································ 260
句中停顿····································································································· 265
断句必先弄清文意················································································· 268
谈谈利用虚词断句················································································· 272
句例和断句································································································ 277
断句也要有方法······················································································ 279
笔法漫谈
文言文的换字法······················································································ 287
说“借代”·································································································· 290
谈“炼字”·································································································· 292
谈“避讳”·································································································· 294
文言文的省字法（一）········································································· 296
文言文的省字法（二）········································································· 298
文言文的省字法（三）········································································· 300
谈“微言大义”························································································ 302
谈“设喻”·································································································· 304
改寿联的故事
　—浅说“脱胎”·············································································· 307
从回文诗说起
　—谈文言文句读的灵活························································ 310
从“ ”字说起
　—兼谈书信中的称呼·································································· 313
文化常识
古代的车战································································································ 317
古代的纪年法··························································································· 321
古代对天区的划分················································································· 325
古代占星术趣谈······················································································ 329
古代的乐律
　—五声、七声、十二律浅说··················································· 333
说“妙玉听琴”························································································ 337
古代的乐器································································································ 340
鸿门宴上的座次······················································································ 343
异彩纷呈的先秦诸子散文·································································· 346
厚重动人的先秦史传············································································ 350
编后记·········································································································· 354

谈谈文言文教学中央教科所的同志邀我来谈谈文言文教学，我很高兴，但不一定能说好，要请大家多多批评。
我以为文言文教学是个新问题。
过去教文言文似乎没有问题，大家都是一种教法，两个内容：一个是疏通文意，包括讲解难词难句，归纳段意和主旨，有时关于作者也说几句，但只有几句，决不多说；二是指导学生诵读，说指导，其实主要是领读。到的时候，初中只考解词和默写，高中还要拿出一段没学过的短文让学生译述大意。对这种教学和考法，没有人提出不同意见。争论也有，只是学多学少的问题，但这要由上头决定，教师只是执行，反正不管学多学少，教法和考法都维持不变。这是解放前后大约50年间的情形。那时候的学生读得很认真，尽管有些句子只是模模糊糊地懂了，许多名篇都能背诵，阅读能力也不错。
80年代以后的情形就不同了，有些人认为上面那种教法属于少慢差费。一定要改，怎么改呢？一是要讲讲翻译，把课文逐句译成现代文，以为这样讲可以立竿见影；二是讲语法，什么意动、使动、宾语提前、定语后置之类的名词，一股脑儿上来了，以为有了这些知识，就可以一通百通。所以教师越讲越多，学生课上没有诵读的时间；再加上方法的改变，学生课后大部分时间用于完成所谓“单项练习”，也很少诵读课文。六年下来，能背的课文有限得很；等到课文忘得差不多了，词汇和语法知识也跟着忘掉，所以文言阅读的能力就难以提高。古话说：“皮之不存，毛将焉附？”这正是当前文言文教学所面临的问题。
文言文究竟该怎么教呢？ 我想文言文是个土生土长的东西，外国没有，也不会有。教文言文，应当立足于尊重传统经验，取其精华，去其糟粕，然后参考当代新的教学理论和教学方法作适当的改革，才是真正的出路所在；如果不顾传统经验而刻意求新，以至盲目套用外国的经验，其结果必定是事与愿违。为此，我打算谈以下四个问题：一、文言文的质和特点。
二、文言诵读教学法。
三、文言诵读课的教学环节和教学法类型。
四、文言词语教学。
一、文言文的质和特点今天先讲个问题：文言文的质和特点。
这个问题很重要，因为文言文的传统教学法是把诵读放在所有教学环节的中心位置上，要通过诵读培养语感，用宋人朱熹的话来说，就是“使其言若出己之口”，而这种教法正是适应着文言文的质和特点产生的。必须首先了解文言文的质和特点，才能认识这种教法的实质。我们采用新的教学法，提倡百花齐放，也要注意这个问题，要使花儿开得鲜艳，须有好的土壤。这土壤就是文言文的质和特点，离开这个土壤，花是放不起来的。
就质来说，文言文是古代的书面语体，是用文字写出来供人们阅读的。书面语体跟口语是什么关系呢？简单地说，就是它既来自口语，又跟口语相分离。古代的口语我们虽没听过，但读过的一例为《红楼梦》，就是用口语，那是雍正乾隆时代的口语，已经跟现在比较接近了。再远一点我们还可以看宋人的话本，例如《大宋宣和遗事》里头有一段，记宋江从九天玄女殿后出来，看见香案上放着一本天书，打开一看，里头有一首诗，写的是：“破国因山木，兵刀用水工。一朝充将领，海内耸威风。”接着又写道：“宋江读了，口中不说，心下思量：‘这四句分明是说了我里姓名。’”你看，宋江这句潜台词就是很地道的口语，如果用文言来表述，那就应该是“此明言我姓名也”，比原话少五个字。还有一段记宋徽宗微服到了李师师家，开头谎称是殿试秀才，可是一见李师师的面就忘乎所以，说出自己的真实身份，李师师吓了一大跳，以为他搞讹诈，连忙出去告诉她娘：“娘，你可急忙告报官司去，恐带累咱们！”这也是口语，如用文言表述，只需七个字：“娘急告官，免累及！”从这些记载可以看出，文言和口语是不相同的。
作为书面语体的文言文，有两大特色：是简洁；第二是典雅。下面分开来讲。
先说简洁。简洁并不是文言文所专有，现代书面语也讲求简洁，行文不拖泥带水，不说废话，但文言文要求更高，要用极少的字眼表达尽可能多的内容，概括地说，叫作“文约而意丰”。分三点讲：首先讲用字。文言文很讲究用字，这是孔夫子留下来的传统，正式的说法叫“微言大义”，通俗地讲，叫“一字褒贬”。例如《春秋经·鲁隐公元年》有这样的记载：“夏，五月，郑伯克段于鄢。”“段”，是郑伯的弟弟叔段，有夺取政权的野心，郑伯趁他起兵之机杀了他，孔子就用“克”这个字来揭露郑伯兄的罪过，哥哥不像哥哥，弟弟不像弟弟，如同对立的两国。后来，这个传统扩大到无论写什么都讲究把许多意思浓缩在一两个字眼里。例如孟子说的“域民不以封疆之界”，“域”，原义是划定区域，用在这句话里又多出“防止外流”一层意思，反映了战国时期诸侯国君征兵的需要和人口流动频繁的状况。又如韩愈说的“人其人”（《原道》），前一个“人”字，语法家们好讲名词活用为动词，还有区分意动还是使动，这有什么用？这个“人”字就反映了他反对道的坚定立场—在他看来，道之人无父无君，不能算作人，所以要使他们变回来，成为真正的人；如果把这句话改成“使其人还俗为民”，他的立场就被淡化了。范仲淹有一篇《严先生祠堂记》，严先生就是严光，东汉开国皇帝年轻时的朋友，诗句“观鱼胜过富春江”就是指他说，这篇文章的结尾是一首诗：“云山苍苍，江水泱泱，先生之风，山高水长。”这是改过了的，“风”，原作“德”，是个抽象字眼，跟下句“山高水长”不相配；而“风”有“风范”“风采”等义，一字之易，使严光超尘脱俗的形象宛然长存于山水之间。
其次说语汇。文言语汇也大多有丰富的内涵，有许多一直保存到今天，例如“居安思危”，讲治国的道理；“谦受益，满招损”，讲对人的态度；“厚积薄发”，讲治学的道理；如此等等，都足以警动人心，发人深思。附带说说，文言的造语简练对现代语也是有影响的，例如我们现在说的“抓纲带目”“南水北调”等都是仿文言造出来的，如果把这类语汇都改写成当代的口语，例如“使南方水流到北方来”，既费事，又不易记住。这方面的现象我们看得很多，不需要多讲。
文言文的简洁还表现在行文上常省略某些不言而喻的意思。例如孟子“有为者，譬若掘井；掘井九轫（仞）而不及泉，犹为弃井也”这句话，意思是有作为的人做事，就像挖井一样，要不停地掘下去，直至看到泉水为止；如果挖了九仞深没有见到泉水就停下来，就等于挖了一口废井。但文中却没有“必及泉而后止”一类的话，因为这是不言而喻的。这种省略跟语法省略不同，如“君与俱来”“此人可就见，不可屈致也”。欧阳修《醉翁亭记》有这样一段话：“峰回路转，有亭翼然临于泉上者，醉翁亭也。作亭者谁？山之僧智仙也。名之者谁？太守自谓也。”初读，往往以为答语中多出“自谓”二字；其实这句话妙就妙在“自谓”二字上，因为上文已指出亭名叫“醉翁”，所以“名之者谁”一问中还暗含“醉翁者云何”一问，答语正是兼顾这二句的，先说“名之者”，后用“自谓”说出命名用意，往下再说自己以“醉翁”为号的缘故，更显得顺理成章。若将两问一一写出，则失之繁冗。又如《三峡》中“清荣峻茂”四字，形似一语，而实为四个独词句，即“水清，树荣，山峻，草茂”。这种简洁的行文方式在现代文中是找不到的。
此外，用典也是文约而意丰的一种表现，但用典的主要功能是使行文显得典雅，这一条要放到下面讲。
再说文言文的第二大特色：典雅。“典雅”的通俗解释是优美，不粗俗；说得确切些，是“文辞有典据而雅驯”—这是《辞海》里的注文，我们就依此分两点来讲。
有典据，习惯上也叫“有出处”，意思是文中用语出自前代的典籍。杜甫可算是这个方面的模范，由于“读书破万卷”的缘故，在他的诗文中，除常用词语外，都是有出处的。试以《兵车行》段为例：“车辚辚”，“辚辚”出自《诗经·秦风·车邻》：“有车邻邻，有马白颠。”“马萧萧”，“萧萧”出自《诗经·小雅·车政》：“萧萧马鸣，悠悠旆旌。”“耶娘”，出自古乐府：“不闻耶娘唤女声。”“尘埃”，出自《楚辞·渔父》：“而蒙世之尘埃乎。”“牵衣”，出自曹丕诗句：“妻子牵衣袂。”“干云霄”，出自孔稚珪《北山移文》：“干青云而直上。”这一类典据限于词语的运用，词语有出处，才显得庄重、优美。
还有一类典据，叫典故，有的出自历著名的故事，叫事典，也叫用事；有的是著名典籍上现成的话，叫语典。语典入文一般要指明来源，例如“孔子曰：三人行，则必有我师”“孔子云：何陋之有”；有时也可以化入文章，不指明出处，如“圣人无常师”“悟已往之不谏，知来者之可追”，这些话都出自《论语》，却不是孔子说的，无须指明出处。事典本身就是史实的高度概括，如“龙光牛斗之墟”“徐孺下陈蕃之榻”（《滕王阁序》），无须指明出处；大多用于比拟，其韵味全凭读者自己去领会。如《石钟山记》中用“周景王之无”和“魏献子（庄子）之歌钟”比拟水石相搏之声：“无”是十二律中的十律，音高仅次于“应钟”，比喻声音的洪大、嘹亮；“歌钟”可使人产生五音繁会的想象。在《滕王阁序》里，“望长安于日下”用晋明帝答元帝问事，有“日近长安远”之意，“奉宣室以何年”则是作者以贾谊比喻自己，都深刻地表现出作者的逐客之悲。
用语典，可使行文显得庄重，能以理服人；用事典，可使行文显得含蓄有致，能以情动人。
再说雅驯。雅驯，就是有文明人的风度，出语庄重得体，含蓄委婉，彬彬有礼。这方面的例子，在课文里比比皆是，如：“齐桓晋文之事，可得闻乎？”这是齐宣王对孟子说的话。孟子当时已70多岁，齐宣王却很年轻，如果说“齐桓晋文之事，愿先生为寡人言之”，就显得对长者不够尊敬。
“诺，恣君之所使之。”这是赵太后对触龙说的话，表明她改变了早先的僵硬立场，同意让长安君为质于齐，以换取齐的援兵。为什么她不直说“诺，使长安君为质于齐”呢？因为这有损她的身份。改成这种说法，既回避了先前的错误，又有对老臣表示尊重的意思，十分庄重得体。以上是对话，再看叙事：《崤之战》中记晋大臣先轸发现秦囚被释放，上朝问晋襄公，听襄公的解释后，他很不满意，向襄公吐了一口唾沫，但文中不说“唾其面”，而说“不顾而唾”。这是为尊者讳，很得体。
《陈情表》记作者幼年遭遇，说“行年四岁，舅夺母志”。“夺”是改变的意思；“母志”未明说，当然是指母亲守节之志，此志既“夺”，就是改嫁了。如果把这个意思照直说出，则是“舅逼母嫁”，这就显得粗俗不堪了。
在抒情文中，这种雅驯的风格表现得尤其明显。例如韩愈《祭十二郎文》中这一段：“嫂尝抚汝指吾而言曰：‘韩氏两世，惟此而已！’汝时尤小，当不复记忆；吾时虽能记忆，亦未知其言之悲也。”又如归有光《项脊轩志》中这一段：“庭有枇杷树，吾妻死之年所手植也，今已亭亭如盖矣。”这两段话都是情浓而语淡，确有“哀而不伤”的境界。
书信也很讲究风度，出言有礼。读古人的书信，可以想见其为人。我想举一个特殊的例子，这就是《赤壁之战》里所节录的曹操给孙权的信：“近者奉辞伐罪，旌麾南指，刘琮束手。今治水军八十万众，方与将军会猎于吴。”这是一封战书，然而出语从容不迫，彬彬有礼。
“雅驯”一词的含义很广，但主要是指风度、风致说的，文言既是书面语体，自然要有良好的风度，要庄重得体，含蓄委婉，出语从容不迫，彬彬有礼，这样的风度跟我们这个文明古国才是相称的。
今天所要讲的就是这些，把以上讲的概括成一句话就是：文言文是在古代汉语口语的基础上，经过加工提炼而形成的一种以简洁、典雅为特征的书面语体。认识文言文的这种质和两大特征，对我们选择正确的教法具有重要的意义。

作者张必锟先生身跨两个时代，集三种身份于一身——谙熟旧学的学者、中学语文教师、教材和教参编者。张先生的文言教学法立足传统经验，取精华去糟粕，参以当代教学理论，主张以诵读为核心的文言文教学法，抓住文言简练、典雅的特点，通过诵读培养语感，积累文言知识，提升文言文阅读理解能力。