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音像文言教学法/语文教师小丛书张必锟
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文言教学
谈谈文言文教学·························································································· 3
文言文教学法····························································································· 44
谈谈文言文练习的设计(提纲)······················································· 68
多读点文言文为好··················································································· 76
“掘井九仞”说诵读················································································ 83
从《卖柑者言》的教学设想谈初中文言文教学问题············· 86
《教战守策》教学设想········································································· 101
《五柳先生传》教学实录···································································· 109
附1:一堂真正的文言文自读课(礼出)······························ 114
附2:张必锟答礼出信···································································· 117
《师说》诵读教学设想········································································· 121
附:《师说》导读·············································································· 131
《出师表》背诵指导要点···································································· 142
《送董邵南游河北序》背诵指导要点··········································· 146
《岳阳楼记》背诵指导要点······························································· 149
实词译解
怎样辨析词的本义················································································· 155
利用语言环境辨析词义
—学习文言实词的一个基本方法········································· 158
“荆轲废”怎么解?
—浅谈词义引申············································································ 162
“子曰”的故事························································································ 165
“五六”不是“三十”
—文言文中约数的表示法························································ 167
译文必须“可解”··················································································· 170
直译和意译不可偏废············································································ 174
虚词随笔
虚词为什么又叫“语”?····························································· 181
虚词不虚····································································································· 183
学文言虚词,要懂得“审辞气”····················································· 186
再谈“审辞气”························································································ 189
三谈“审辞气”························································································ 194
一个有趣的比较
—介绍一种学习虚词的方法··················································· 198
学文言虚词也要“听”········································································· 200
文言虚词的模糊分类法······································································· 203
“之”的用法漫谈··················································································· 207
“之”于史文神理何干?
—说“汉军之楚歌”···································································· 211
略说“之”的叠用················································································· 214
“矣”有“言外之意”吗?······························································· 217
“矣”字值得品味··················································································· 220
《马说》中的五个“也”字······························································· 2
《醉翁亭记》的二十一个“也”字················································ 226
这个“也”字增不得············································································ 229
追加两个“而”字················································································· 2
“若夫”解·································································································· 5
从“夫天地者”说起············································································
“多乎哉?”
—谈文言文中复杂语气的表示·············································· 240
“穿井”能“得人”吗?
—浅谈虚词的省略······································································· 242
虚词疑难辨析(一)
—兼答覃继仁同学······································································· 245
虚词疑难辨析(二)·············································································· 248
断句指津
不要把句子读破······················································································ 253
夔只有一只脚吗······················································································ 256
人名不能读破··························································································· 258
句读和朗读································································································ 260
句中停顿····································································································· 265
断句必先弄清文意················································································· 268
谈谈利用虚词断句················································································· 272
句例和断句································································································ 277
断句也要有方法······················································································ 279
笔法漫谈
文言文的换字法······················································································ 287
说“借代”·································································································· 290
谈“炼字”·································································································· 292
谈“避讳”·································································································· 294
文言文的省字法(一)········································································· 296
文言文的省字法(二)········································································· 298
文言文的省字法(三)········································································· 300
谈“微言大义”························································································ 302
谈“设喻”·································································································· 304
改寿联的故事
—浅说“脱胎”·············································································· 307
从回文诗说起
—谈文言文句读的灵活························································ 310
从“ ”字说起
—兼谈书信中的称呼·································································· 313
文化常识
古代的车战································································································ 317
古代的纪年法··························································································· 321
古代对天区的划分················································································· 325
古代占星术趣谈······················································································ 329
古代的乐律
—五声、七声、十二律浅说··················································· 333
说“妙玉听琴”························································································ 337
古代的乐器································································································ 340
鸿门宴上的座次······················································································ 343
异彩纷呈的先秦诸子散文·································································· 346
厚重动人的先秦史传············································································ 350
编后记·········································································································· 354
谈谈文言文教学中央教科所的同志邀我来谈谈文言文教学,我很高兴,但不一定能说好,要请大家多多批评。
我以为文言文教学是个新问题。
过去教文言文似乎没有问题,大家都是一种教法,两个内容:一个是疏通文意,包括讲解难词难句,归纳段意和主旨,有时关于作者也说几句,但只有几句,决不多说;二是指导学生诵读,说指导,其实主要是领读。到的时候,初中只考解词和默写,高中还要拿出一段没学过的短文让学生译述大意。对这种教学和考法,没有人提出不同意见。争论也有,只是学多学少的问题,但这要由上头决定,教师只是执行,反正不管学多学少,教法和考法都维持不变。这是解放前后大约50年间的情形。那时候的学生读得很认真,尽管有些句子只是模模糊糊地懂了,许多名篇都能背诵,阅读能力也不错。
80年代以后的情形就不同了,有些人认为上面那种教法属于少慢差费。一定要改,怎么改呢?一是要讲讲翻译,把课文逐句译成现代文,以为这样讲可以立竿见影;二是讲语法,什么意动、使动、宾语提前、定语后置之类的名词,一股脑儿上来了,以为有了这些知识,就可以一通百通。所以教师越讲越多,学生课上没有诵读的时间;再加上方法的改变,学生课后大部分时间用于完成所谓“单项练习”,也很少诵读课文。六年下来,能背的课文有限得很;等到课文忘得差不多了,词汇和语法知识也跟着忘掉,所以文言阅读的能力就难以提高。古话说:“皮之不存,毛将焉附?”这正是当前文言文教学所面临的问题。
文言文究竟该怎么教呢? 我想文言文是个土生土长的东西,外国没有,也不会有。教文言文,应当立足于尊重传统经验,取其精华,去其糟粕,然后参考当代新的教学理论和教学方法作适当的改革,才是真正的出路所在;如果不顾传统经验而刻意求新,以至盲目套用外国的经验,其结果必定是事与愿违。为此,我打算谈以下四个问题:一、文言文的质和特点。
二、文言诵读教学法。
三、文言诵读课的教学环节和教学法类型。
四、文言词语教学。
一、文言文的质和特点今天先讲个问题:文言文的质和特点。
这个问题很重要,因为文言文的传统教学法是把诵读放在所有教学环节的中心位置上,要通过诵读培养语感,用宋人朱熹的话来说,就是“使其言若出己之口”,而这种教法正是适应着文言文的质和特点产生的。必须首先了解文言文的质和特点,才能认识这种教法的实质。我们采用新的教学法,提倡百花齐放,也要注意这个问题,要使花儿开得鲜艳,须有好的土壤。这土壤就是文言文的质和特点,离开这个土壤,花是放不起来的。
就质来说,文言文是古代的书面语体,是用文字写出来供人们阅读的。书面语体跟口语是什么关系呢?简单地说,就是它既来自口语,又跟口语相分离。古代的口语我们虽没听过,但读过的一例为《红楼梦》,就是用口语,那是雍正乾隆时代的口语,已经跟现在比较接近了。再远一点我们还可以看宋人的话本,例如《大宋宣和遗事》里头有一段,记宋江从九天玄女殿后出来,看见香案上放着一本天书,打开一看,里头有一首诗,写的是:“破国因山木,兵刀用水工。一朝充将领,海内耸威风。”接着又写道:“宋江读了,口中不说,心下思量:‘这四句分明是说了我里姓名。’”你看,宋江这句潜台词就是很地道的口语,如果用文言来表述,那就应该是“此明言我姓名也”,比原话少五个字。还有一段记宋徽宗微服到了李师师家,开头谎称是殿试秀才,可是一见李师师的面就忘乎所以,说出自己的真实身份,李师师吓了一大跳,以为他搞讹诈,连忙出去告诉她娘:“娘,你可急忙告报官司去,恐带累咱们!”这也是口语,如用文言表述,只需七个字:“娘急告官,免累及!”从这些记载可以看出,文言和口语是不相同的。
作为书面语体的文言文,有两大特色:是简洁;第二是典雅。下面分开来讲。
先说简洁。简洁并不是文言文所专有,现代书面语也讲求简洁,行文不拖泥带水,不说废话,但文言文要求更高,要用极少的字眼表达尽可能多的内容,概括地说,叫作“文约而意丰”。分三点讲:首先讲用字。文言文很讲究用字,这是孔夫子留下来的传统,正式的说法叫“微言大义”,通俗地讲,叫“一字褒贬”。例如《春秋经·鲁隐公元年》有这样的记载:“夏,五月,郑伯克段于鄢。”“段”,是郑伯的弟弟叔段,有夺取政权的野心,郑伯趁他起兵之机杀了他,孔子就用“克”这个字来揭露郑伯兄的罪过,哥哥不像哥哥,弟弟不像弟弟,如同对立的两国。后来,这个传统扩大到无论写什么都讲究把许多意思浓缩在一两个字眼里。例如孟子说的“域民不以封疆之界”,“域”,原义是划定区域,用在这句话里又多出“防止外流”一层意思,反映了战国时期诸侯国君征兵的需要和人口流动频繁的状况。又如韩愈说的“人其人”(《原道》),前一个“人”字,语法家们好讲名词活用为动词,还有区分意动还是使动,这有什么用?这个“人”字就反映了他反对道的坚定立场—在他看来,道之人无父无君,不能算作人,所以要使他们变回来,成为真正的人;如果把这句话改成“使其人还俗为民”,他的立场就被淡化了。范仲淹有一篇《严先生祠堂记》,严先生就是严光,东汉开国皇帝年轻时的朋友,诗句“观鱼胜过富春江”就是指他说,这篇文章的结尾是一首诗:“云山苍苍,江水泱泱,先生之风,山高水长。”这是改过了的,“风”,原作“德”,是个抽象字眼,跟下句“山高水长”不相配;而“风”有“风范”“风采”等义,一字之易,使严光超尘脱俗的形象宛然长存于山水之间。
其次说语汇。文言语汇也大多有丰富的内涵,有许多一直保存到今天,例如“居安思危”,讲治国的道理;“谦受益,满招损”,讲对人的态度;“厚积薄发”,讲治学的道理;如此等等,都足以警动人心,发人深思。附带说说,文言的造语简练对现代语也是有影响的,例如我们现在说的“抓纲带目”“南水北调”等都是仿文言造出来的,如果把这类语汇都改写成当代的口语,例如“使南方水流到北方来”,既费事,又不易记住。这方面的现象我们看得很多,不需要多讲。
文言文的简洁还表现在行文上常省略某些不言而喻的意思。例如孟子“有为者,譬若掘井;掘井九轫(仞)而不及泉,犹为弃井也”这句话,意思是有作为的人做事,就像挖井一样,要不停地掘下去,直至看到泉水为止;如果挖了九仞深没有见到泉水就停下来,就等于挖了一口废井。但文中却没有“必及泉而后止”一类的话,因为这是不言而喻的。这种省略跟语法省略不同,如“君与俱来”“此人可就见,不可屈致也”。欧阳修《醉翁亭记》有这样一段话:“峰回路转,有亭翼然临于泉上者,醉翁亭也。作亭者谁?山之僧智仙也。名之者谁?太守自谓也。”初读,往往以为答语中多出“自谓”二字;其实这句话妙就妙在“自谓”二字上,因为上文已指出亭名叫“醉翁”,所以“名之者谁”一问中还暗含“醉翁者云何”一问,答语正是兼顾这二句的,先说“名之者”,后用“自谓”说出命名用意,往下再说自己以“醉翁”为号的缘故,更显得顺理成章。若将两问一一写出,则失之繁冗。又如《三峡》中“清荣峻茂”四字,形似一语,而实为四个独词句,即“水清,树荣,山峻,草茂”。这种简洁的行文方式在现代文中是找不到的。
此外,用典也是文约而意丰的一种表现,但用典的主要功能是使行文显得典雅,这一条要放到下面讲。
再说文言文的第二大特色:典雅。“典雅”的通俗解释是优美,不粗俗;说得确切些,是“文辞有典据而雅驯”—这是《辞海》里的注文,我们就依此分两点来讲。
有典据,习惯上也叫“有出处”,意思是文中用语出自前代的典籍。杜甫可算是这个方面的模范,由于“读书破万卷”的缘故,在他的诗文中,除常用词语外,都是有出处的。试以《兵车行》段为例:“车辚辚”,“辚辚”出自《诗经·秦风·车邻》:“有车邻邻,有马白颠。”“马萧萧”,“萧萧”出自《诗经·小雅·车政》:“萧萧马鸣,悠悠旆旌。”“耶娘”,出自古乐府:“不闻耶娘唤女声。”“尘埃”,出自《楚辞·渔父》:“而蒙世之尘埃乎。”“牵衣”,出自曹丕诗句:“妻子牵衣袂。”“干云霄”,出自孔稚珪《北山移文》:“干青云而直上。”这一类典据限于词语的运用,词语有出处,才显得庄重、优美。
还有一类典据,叫典故,有的出自历著名的故事,叫事典,也叫用事;有的是著名典籍上现成的话,叫语典。语典入文一般要指明来源,例如“孔子曰:三人行,则必有我师”“孔子云:何陋之有”;有时也可以化入文章,不指明出处,如“圣人无常师”“悟已往之不谏,知来者之可追”,这些话都出自《论语》,却不是孔子说的,无须指明出处。事典本身就是史实的高度概括,如“龙光牛斗之墟”“徐孺下陈蕃之榻”(《滕王阁序》),无须指明出处;大多用于比拟,其韵味全凭读者自己去领会。如《石钟山记》中用“周景王之无”和“魏献子(庄子)之歌钟”比拟水石相搏之声:“无”是十二律中的十律,音高仅次于“应钟”,比喻声音的洪大、嘹亮;“歌钟”可使人产生五音繁会的想象。在《滕王阁序》里,“望长安于日下”用晋明帝答元帝问事,有“日近长安远”之意,“奉宣室以何年”则是作者以贾谊比喻自己,都深刻地表现出作者的逐客之悲。
用语典,可使行文显得庄重,能以理服人;用事典,可使行文显得含蓄有致,能以情动人。
再说雅驯。雅驯,就是有文明人的风度,出语庄重得体,含蓄委婉,彬彬有礼。这方面的例子,在课文里比比皆是,如:“齐桓晋文之事,可得闻乎?”这是齐宣王对孟子说的话。孟子当时已70多岁,齐宣王却很年轻,如果说“齐桓晋文之事,愿先生为寡人言之”,就显得对长者不够尊敬。
“诺,恣君之所使之。”这是赵太后对触龙说的话,表明她改变了早先的僵硬立场,同意让长安君为质于齐,以换取齐的援兵。为什么她不直说“诺,使长安君为质于齐”呢?因为这有损她的身份。改成这种说法,既回避了先前的错误,又有对老臣表示尊重的意思,十分庄重得体。以上是对话,再看叙事:《崤之战》中记晋大臣先轸发现秦囚被释放,上朝问晋襄公,听襄公的解释后,他很不满意,向襄公吐了一口唾沫,但文中不说“唾其面”,而说“不顾而唾”。这是为尊者讳,很得体。
《陈情表》记作者幼年遭遇,说“行年四岁,舅夺母志”。“夺”是改变的意思;“母志”未明说,当然是指母亲守节之志,此志既“夺”,就是改嫁了。如果把这个意思照直说出,则是“舅逼母嫁”,这就显得粗俗不堪了。
在抒情文中,这种雅驯的风格表现得尤其明显。例如韩愈《祭十二郎文》中这一段:“嫂尝抚汝指吾而言曰:‘韩氏两世,惟此而已!’汝时尤小,当不复记忆;吾时虽能记忆,亦未知其言之悲也。”又如归有光《项脊轩志》中这一段:“庭有枇杷树,吾妻死之年所手植也,今已亭亭如盖矣。”这两段话都是情浓而语淡,确有“哀而不伤”的境界。
书信也很讲究风度,出言有礼。读古人的书信,可以想见其为人。我想举一个特殊的例子,这就是《赤壁之战》里所节录的曹操给孙权的信:“近者奉辞伐罪,旌麾南指,刘琮束手。今治水军八十万众,方与将军会猎于吴。”这是一封战书,然而出语从容不迫,彬彬有礼。
“雅驯”一词的含义很广,但主要是指风度、风致说的,文言既是书面语体,自然要有良好的风度,要庄重得体,含蓄委婉,出语从容不迫,彬彬有礼,这样的风度跟我们这个文明古国才是相称的。
今天所要讲的就是这些,把以上讲的概括成一句话就是:文言文是在古代汉语口语的基础上,经过加工提炼而形成的一种以简洁、典雅为特征的书面语体。认识文言文的这种质和两大特征,对我们选择正确的教法具有重要的意义。
作者张必锟先生身跨两个时代,集三种身份于一身——谙熟旧学的学者、中学语文教师、教材和教参编者。张先生的文言教学法立足传统经验,取精华去糟粕,参以当代教学理论,主张以诵读为核心的文言文教学法,抓住文言简练、典雅的特点,通过诵读培养语感,积累文言知识,提升文言文阅读理解能力。
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